ELIZABETH
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Situation as she comes into power
State of England
Elizabeth's personality:
Members to keep on the Council:Elizabeth decided to keep a few council members that Mary (and Edward) had previously had which were:
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What she learnt
Priorities1. Stop the war
2. Sort out finance 3. Help the people 4. Religious situation |
Start from 3.35
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Government
TudorMonarch:
Prerogative powers
Appoints the Privy Council – who do the day to day running of the country (small bureaucracy) Power lies with the monarch No democracy No parliament – separation of power |
TodaysMonarch:
Power lies with the cabinet and the PM Democratic – elect the house of commons |
The maximum members of her Council would be twenty, although it was often much less than that. The Council would meet a few times a week, daily to the end of her reign, whereas parliament was almost never called - and often only called because Elizabeth wanted money.
The Court and the SYSTEM
Evidence to show that Elizabeth and Cecil were:
Powerful
·Good political skills
·Intelligent and sophisticated ·Cecil: The man who does everything ·Instinctive power ·Controlled her own policy ·Structured her government to stop rivalry from getting out of hand · Insists on the royal prerogative ·Stability enforced by family connections ·No single minister has control over patronage – Elizabeth remains in power ·Members of the council are connected to Cecil, his family:
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Not Powerful
·Had to keep some of the old Marian council
·Divisions between Cecil and his people and Dudley ·Must continue to keep the top aristocracy |
Factional RivalriesThe danger of these factional rivalries is that this conflict causes disruption in the running of court, but also causes the potential for a rebellion and overthrowing of the ruler. The first rivalry between Dudley and Cecil meant that Elizabeth’s choices were always torn and the conflict led to her havig to step in to control the tempers of court. The factional rivalries that were caused by the Duke of Norfolk were more serious as since he was the closest of Elizabeth’s male relatives he would want to get power to secure his right for succession, whilst Elizabeth wanted to keep him far away from getting power as if he had power to give patronage, power may start to leave her and go to him. The traditionalist view was that the council was mainly effected by the factional rivalry between Cecil and his allies who were moderate protestant and Dudley and his allies who were radical protestant but the revised historical interpretation is that Cecil was a more radical protestant that it has been previously considered, but few factional disputes broke up the council.
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Revisionist Interpretation of Fractional Rivalry:
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Historiography: John Guy's view on the council:
Elizabeth’s Powers and Influence
Membership of the Council
The Council’s Powers and Role
- Elizabeth was involved with Council – chose and sacked members; chose issues for them to discuss; decided on its size; decided whether to accept their advice
- However: she didn’t attend meetings and left Council alone for much of the time
- This was because most Council business was routine administration; they had a small amount of time to discuss major political issues, usually those requested by Elizabeth
- If Council did raise other issues, Elizabeth usually ignored them- especially on the issues of marriage, Mary Queen of Scots, and the succession.
Membership of the Council
- Mixture of councillors – some chosen for ability to deal with minor details. Others were leading peers (Lords from the most influential families)
- Number of peers on Council decreased during the reign – sign of Elizabeth’s growing confidence. None at all for much of 2nd half of the reign.
- Size of Council also decreased – was 40 under Mary and 20 in Elizabeth’s early years. By end of the reign was in single figures – tightly-knit group of full time politicians.
The Council’s Powers and Role
- No definition of their powers but members assumed they could do whatever particular circumstances required.
- Council made proclamations in Elizabeth’s name- these were seen to have the force of law
- Council could arrest and imprison individuals- often for failing to carry out the Council’s instructions. Few people protested about this, for the reasons below:
- People were quickly released if they promised to obey the Council in future
- “Freedom” was less of an important concept in Tudor times than some historians have suggested
- Council only arrested people occasionally
- Most people agreed with the Council’s choice of people to punish.
Original Difficulties: Overcome
- Elizabeth asserted herself as a strong and decisive leader so that there could be no question about whether she was going to be fit to rule as they feared that because she was a woman and because she was coming after the ‘Mid-Tudor Crisis’ that she might not be a good leader, but because of the way that she gave herself authority and kept the prerogative powers very close to her and remained in control, she was more feared than Mary
- Keeping control of her own policy meant that she was able to be in control of England and know all of the problems that England faced, she would be the one to decide how they would be solved, which would mean she wasn’t going to let any factional rivalry control her court, but also make sure that there was no one who was going to try and overthrow her.
- She appointed two advisors that she knew and would make sure that these people would be loyal to her. She knew both Cecil and Dudley and wanted to make sure that the people who advised her would not try and overthrow her and would support her in all the decisions that she made. She also kept ministers from Mary’s reign so not to cause opposition.
- She made sure that she had the people’s support by making speeches about the people’s welfare and everything that she was going to do to help them as she knew from the past that if she didn’t have the support of the people then it could lead to rebellions.
- She started peace negotiations with France and accepted the loss of Calais as she knew that war was a terrible idea, especially because of the financial situation and as she had seen in the previous two reigns of her siblings, it didn’t do any favours for them.
- She went along with her father’s policy with the break in Rome and as her country was now protestant again this meant that she was able to support the protestant nobles in Scotland, who in turn would fight off the French for her there, so she didn’t have to keep splitting up her army.
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Religion
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Elizabeth's Church Settlement
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The Act of Supremacy:
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Reaction:
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Act of Uniformity
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1559 Injunctions
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How Protestant was the settlement?
- The returning Protestant exiles believed Elizabeth would protect England from the “evils” of Catholicism (comparing her to the Biblical heroine, Deborah, who protected Israel from its enemies)
- Many of her most loyal supporters, including some members of the Council and many senior clergy, were radical Protestants.
- However, Elizabeth was reluctant to be as radical as these supporters would have liked, and she was unwilling to play the “Deborah” role.
- SUSAN DORAN suggests that Elizabeth was “out of sympathy with the more aggressive Protestantism of her senior churchmen”
Evidence that the settlement was radically Protestant
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Evidence that the settlement was more moderate
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How were these Acts enforced?
Physical Force:
o Bishops of Lincoln sent to the tower o Bishops and surviving members of Mary’s Catholic Council were arrested Compromise: o Allowed Catholics to practise in private Political Practises: o Elizabeth didn’t want to see windows into men’s souls |
Propaganda:
o The Church and State were one o Worship of the English nation o Royal coat of arms in the churches instead of icons o In the prayer book there was a section for the Queen Most of Elizabeth’s religious decisions were made due to political compromise rather than religious pressure. Elizabeth didn’t like it when people had strong ideologies and let those ideologies govern all of their beliefs, so she wouldn’t like to be pressured by such a person. Cecil was her political advisor and was able to use the Church to get her money and the propaganda which they used focused more on nationalism, rather than religion.
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Historiography:
Traditionalist: Sir John Neale 1950
- Elizabeth wanted Parliament to pass the Act of Supremacy, but wanted to dissolve Parliament afterwards, delaying other religious changes till later in her reign
- This was because England remained at war with France and Elizabeth did not want to worsen an already dangerous international situation
- However, when peace was made with France in March 1559, Elizabeth changed her mind. She allowed Parliament to debate other changes, as well as choosing a committee of clergymen to prepare a new prayer book.
- These clergymen, supported by an influential group in the House of Commons (“The Puritan Choir”), pressured Elizabeth to accept a much more Protestant prayer book than she wanted
Revisionist:
Haugaard 1968
Hudson 1980
Jones 1982
Haugaard 1968
- Elizabeth was a committed Protestant who was happy to make all necessary religious reforms at the start of her reign. She never intended to delay any changes.
Hudson 1980
- Elizabeth always planned a firmly Protestant settlement. She hinted to the House of Lords that she might bring back the more moderate 1549 prayer book, but this was just a tactic to get their support for the Acts.
Jones 1982
- Elizabeth wanted a complete Protestant settlement from the start. The pressure from the war with France has been exaggerated. Elizabeth was not pressured by the “Puritan Choir”; in reality, the main opposition was the Catholic bishops in the House of Lords. The Act of Uniformity passed by just three votes, and this was only after arresting or intimidating the bishops.
Peter
Lake’s Argument: “A two-speed view of the settlement”
- In 1559, there were two views about what the settlement meant.
- For Elizabeth, the purpose of the settlement was to make clear that the Crown controlled the Church - this is known as Erastianism. Elizabeth also believed that the role of the settlement was to clarify the beliefs of the Church. (AGR Smith argues that Elizabeth was a clever politician who wanted a moderate settlement in order to reduce opposition. Elizabeth herself claimed she did not wish to “make windows into men’s souls.”)
- Many councillors, including Dudley and Cecil, saw the Settlement in a different light. They believed it was the start of a spiritual renewal, where God’s chosen people - the English - helped to create the one True Church
Protestant Opposition
The Background
1558- 71
1571- 88- Protestant opposition is MOST ACTIVE in this period
1588-1603- Protestant opposition REDUCED in this period
The Threat
The Protestants never posed the same threat to Elizabeth as the Catholics did- they never threatened her life, her throne, or her position as Supreme Governor.
However, they certainly infuriated and frustrated her, and made her position more difficult than it would have been. The period 1571 to 88 was the most important in terms of the Puritan opposition.
It could also be argued that a full split in the Protestant church would have benefitted the Catholic opposition- and could then have weakened Elizabeth's grip. However, this split never happened!
- Protestant opposition began as soon as the Settlement was passed in 1559. Although Protestants were delighted by the Act of Supremacy, which removed the Pope as Head of the Church and appointed Elizabeth as Supreme Governor, they had serious reservations about the Act of Uniformity.
- One main issue was Elizabeth's prayer book. Although she used Northumberland's radical 1552 book as the model, two changes made it more moderate. This angered Puritans (more radical Protestants), including some of the new bishops (who had returned from exile after Mary's death.)
- First, the Black Rubric was removed. The Rubric was a written explanation of why kneeling (usually a Catholic habit) was acceptable to Protestants- it gave Biblical reasons why Protestants could kneel in church. This rubric had reassured the Puritans when it was included in Northumberland's book.
- Second, priests were now able to say "The body of Christ" again when giving out the bread. This hinted at transubstantiation (the Catholic idea that the bread became the body of Christ.)
- Also, priests' vestments were returned to where they were in 1548 (before Edward's reforms) - these were seen as too elaborate by Puritans.
1558- 71
- This period saw the rise of the PURITANS. Puritans were radical Protestants. Religion affected every part of their lives- they saw themselves as "pure" Christians. Sundays were spent "gadding" from one church to another to hear Puritan preachers.
- The Puritans refused to wear the "1548" vestments, leading in 1564 to the Vestiarian Controversy. Although Elizabeth successfully made priests wear the surplice, she did eventually give permisison not to wear the very elaborate albs. She was also succeessful in removing the 37 priests who still refused to wear the surplice.
1571- 88- Protestant opposition is MOST ACTIVE in this period
- Two more groups emerged in this period- the PRESBYTERIANS and the SEPARATISTS. Presbyterians were a group of Puritans who wanted to get rid of bishops- they saw bishops as unBiblical. Separatists were a group of Puritans who felt betrayed by Elizabeth so wanted to create an independent Protestant church.
- Presbyterians were active in London, the Midlands and Norfolk, arranging themselves into "classes" where they discussed their beliefs. Puritan leader Field wrote the two Admonitions- pamphlets criticising The Church of England, and proposing a new Presbyterian system. Leading Presbyterian Thomas Cartwright was sacked from his post at Oxford Cambridge.
- Separatists were also briefly active in London and Norfolk in this period, though they were never a major threat.
- Archbishop of Canterbury, Grindal, was a Puritan. He was suspended by Elizabeth after arguing for prophesyings (gatherings where Puritan preachers spoke to the public) rather than homilies (Elizabeth's scripted sermons which were sent to churches.)
1588-1603- Protestant opposition REDUCED in this period
- Presbyterianism became less influential- partly because Archbishop Whitgift removed several Presbyterians from their posts, partly because the defeat of the Armada convinced many that God supported Elizabeth's moderate Church of England. Also the deaths of Walsingham and Dudley, who had defended Presbyterians, reduced their influence.
- Separatism disappeared- especially after Whitgift executed its leaders Barrow and Greenwood.
- Although most Puritans kept their Puritan attitudes, the Church of England was "broad" enough to incorporate the Puritans inside itself e.g. they were allowed to preach sermons. Also, the Puritan belief in predestination (the idea that God had already decided who would go to Heaven and Hell) was actually shared by the whole Church of England.
- So- by 1603, the Church of England had been accepted. Most ordinary people had grown up with and felt comfortable with the prayer book- and the Church had got better at looking after ordinary people in the villages in the way that the Catholic church used to.
The Threat
The Protestants never posed the same threat to Elizabeth as the Catholics did- they never threatened her life, her throne, or her position as Supreme Governor.
However, they certainly infuriated and frustrated her, and made her position more difficult than it would have been. The period 1571 to 88 was the most important in terms of the Puritan opposition.
It could also be argued that a full split in the Protestant church would have benefitted the Catholic opposition- and could then have weakened Elizabeth's grip. However, this split never happened!
Foreign Policy
Spain
Elizabeth was initially quite happy to maintain the positive relationship which the two countries had enjoyed, not just in Mary's reign but also for centuries beforehand. This changed after 1568, when revolt broke out in the Netherlands. Elizabeth's desire to keep the Netherlands Protestant meant that Elizabeth's main objective towards Spain became removing them from the Netherlands. (See below for Elizabeth's objectives for the Netherlands.)
However, because Elizabeth was unwilling to commit a full army to help the Dutch rebels, this meant that she attempted to harrass/distract the Spanish from the Netherlands in a variety of ways- such as attacking their colonies in the New World, attempting to help Don Antonio take the Portuguese throne, and supporting the rightful ruler, the Sharif of Fez, in Morocco. It meant encouraging privateers such as Drake and Hawkins, who seized Spanish treasure. Nevertheless, it's important to remember that the main morivation and objective behind all of this was trying to weaken the Spanish grip in the Netherlands.
By the 1580s, as the relationship deteriorated further, the objective also became defending England from attack by the Spanish, culminating in the defeat of the Armada in 1588.
However, because Elizabeth was unwilling to commit a full army to help the Dutch rebels, this meant that she attempted to harrass/distract the Spanish from the Netherlands in a variety of ways- such as attacking their colonies in the New World, attempting to help Don Antonio take the Portuguese throne, and supporting the rightful ruler, the Sharif of Fez, in Morocco. It meant encouraging privateers such as Drake and Hawkins, who seized Spanish treasure. Nevertheless, it's important to remember that the main morivation and objective behind all of this was trying to weaken the Spanish grip in the Netherlands.
By the 1580s, as the relationship deteriorated further, the objective also became defending England from attack by the Spanish, culminating in the defeat of the Armada in 1588.
Spain
Position in 1558 –
o Philip married to Mary, who had just died o Philip tries to marry Elizabeth o Potential for trading problems Who drove the intervention? o Elizabeth Intervention – o 1567 Dutch sea-beggars attack the Spanish and Elizabeth lets them use the English harbours o English and Spanish relations worsen Position in 1572 – o They decide to get along and just trade |
New World
Position in 1558 –
o Spain had conquered Mexico, Peru, Chile and the Caribbean o Needed a licence to trade in these countries o English trade was generally piratical or based on illegal trade with the Spanish empire Who drove the intervention? o Elizabeth and Cecil Intervention – o John Hawkins – sold slaves to colonists in the New World o His second voyage was financed by Cecil and Elizabeth who received a 60% profit when he returned o Spain strengthened their defences in 1568 and attacked Hawkins’ fleet at San Juan Position in 1572 – o Conflict building between Spain due to piracy o England was a lot richer due to piracy |
Netherlands
As we've seen, Elizabeth aimed to reduce Spanish influence here- and ultimately to remove Spain completely from the Netherlands. So it involved supporting- whether directly or through mercenary armies- the Dutch rebels, led by William of Orange. This was part of her more general objective for the Netherlands- to ensure that the Netherlands remained (a) Protestant and therefore (b) friendly towards Elizabeth. There were three reasons for this -
1. Religion- Elizabeth feared being surrounded by Catholic countries- the Netherlands was one of the few remaining bits of Europe that was Protestant. 2. Geography- the Netherlands included what we call Holland, Belgium and some of eastern France. It was therefore an easy base from which to launch an attack on England. 3. Trade- 75% of all English trade passed through the Netherlands (this was mainly to do with the cloth industry- English wool was a valuable commodity.) As well as removing Spanish influence, this also meant that Elizabeth was determined to stop the French taking control of the Netherlands too (which is why she supported Anjou and considered marrying him- she felt that, if the French were to gain influence in the Netherlands, then England should at the very least be involved in this.) |
Position in 1558 –
o Weak administrators ruling the Netherlands as Philip II leaves for Madrid o ¾ of all England’s overseas trade passed through Antwerp o ¾ woollen cloth o Antwerp businessmen upset because of the new Book of Rates by Mary Tudor, which increased duties on imports by 75% Intervention – o Chief minister in Netherlands (Cardinal Granvelle) saw Elizabeth as sponsoring the protestant rebels and thought that trade with the English could lead to the spreading of Protestantism o Used the plague in 1563 (London) as an excuse to ban imports on English cloth – trade embargo o Economic suffering – trade resumed in 12 months Position in 1572 – o The danger of relying on one market had been proven, so England started to expand their trading with the Baltic and Russia o Moved from Antwqerp to Emden, Hamburg, Strade and Middleburg o Maintained a friendly relationship with Antwerp (trading) |
France
Elizabeth's objectives to France changed as the reign went on (though as we've seen, one thing that remained throughout was a determination to stop the French dominating the Netherlands):
1558-72 1. Originally, attempt to make peace and create stable relations with the French- as shown by Cateau-Cambresis. However, after Francis II (under the influence of Guise family) took over, this changed to: 2. Ensure that the French were stopped from intervening in Anglo-Scottish relations- so this meant that in 1560, the English army was sent to Scotland to defeat the French invasion. It also meant that, after Mary's abdication, English troops were sent three times to Scotland to help the Protestant Protectors of James to maintain their authority at a time when rebel Scottish Catholics (with rumoured French support) were trying to return Mary to the throne. 3. Supporting foreign Protestants (Elizabeth was less keen on doing this than Cecil and Dudley, but did so under pressure from them)- this resulted in the unsuccessful attempt to help the Huguenots in 1562-4 and in the humiliating Treaty of Troyes. |
Position in 1558 –
o England had just lost Calais o Catholic and increasing in power o Still at war with England Who drove the intervention? o Dudley (wanted a protestant foreign policy and wanted Elizabeth to support the Huguenots) Intervention – o Elizabeth promised the leader (Conde) 6000 soldiers and £30, 000 o Huguenots and Catholics drove the English out of France o Treaty of Troyes Position in 1572 – o Elizabeth decides to be more cautious when supporting protestants in the future o Treaty of Blois 1572 (defensive against the Spanish) o Negotiations for marriage between Elizabeth and Henry |
Scotland
Much of this has been covered under France, but the main objective in terms of Scotland was (during the years 1558 to 1567, when Mary abdicated) to ensure that the French did not manage to intervene in Scotland, which would have posed a serious threat to England. This also meant giving support to the Lords of the Congregation, who were an anti-French group of Protestant nobles. Elizabeth helped them to achieve greater influence in 1560, with the Treaty of Edinburgh. After 1567, the main aim became strengthening Scotland's Protestant rulers (James, the Regents who ruled on his behalf, and the Scottish Council) in order that they could rule successfully without fear of Catholic rebellion or French Catholic intervention. After 1572, and the three English interventions in four years, the situation had settled down, so the objective became maintaining the new, positive relationship between England and Scotland.
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Position in 1558 –
o Still allied with France who are at war with England Who drove the intervention? o Cecil Intervention – o France sends fleets to Scotland o Navy (1559) sends help to stop the French, providing money and weapons o Army fails and doesn’t get to Edinburgh o 1560, the French never come back o Treaty of Edinburgh 1560 o Protestants in charge, want to remove Mary Queen of Scots o Danger when Mary moved to England Position in 1572 – o James Stuart, established a new protestant government o Good position with France and therefore a good position with Scotland |
Ireland
Elizabeth's long-term aim was the policy of "Englishness"- she wanted to ensure that her titles of "Lord of Ireland" and "Queen of Ireland" actually meant something in reality (rather than the fact that she only controlled Dublin and The Pale.) "Englishness" involved trying to make Ireland more English- by making the Irish speak English, not Gaelic; by imposing the English rather than the Irish legal system; and by imposing Protestantism. This objective failed!
After 1595, her short-term objective became defeating Tyrone's Rebellion, and in particular, ensuring that the Irish rebels did not establish an Ireland which was (a) free from any English influence, even in the Pale and (b) under the influence of Spainm, like the Netherlands was. She was moderately successful on this front!
After 1595, her short-term objective became defeating Tyrone's Rebellion, and in particular, ensuring that the Irish rebels did not establish an Ireland which was (a) free from any English influence, even in the Pale and (b) under the influence of Spainm, like the Netherlands was. She was moderately successful on this front!
English Intervention
1559-Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis
Enforced by:
Motives:
Successes:
1562- Sent Military support to Protestant Huguenots in France
Enforced by:
Motives:
Successes:
Failures:
1568-Blockades in San Juan de Ulua
Led by:
Motives:
Failures:
Historian’s views:
1568-Spanish treasure seized by English
Enforced by:
Motives:
Successes:
Failures:
Historian’s views:
1572- Treaty of Blois
Enforced by:
Motives:
Successes:
Failures:
1572- Expulsion of the Sea beggars
Enforced by:
Motives:
Failures:
1579- Marriage negotiations with Duke of Anjou
Enforced by:
Motives:
Successes:
Failures:
1585- Treaty of Nonsuch
Enforced by:
Motives:
Successes:
Failures:
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1588- The Spanish Armada
Enforced by:
Motives:
Successes:
Failures:
Historian’s views
1589- Portuguese Expedition
Led by:
Motives:
Failures:
Historian’s views:
1589-1593- Piracy in the new world
Led by:
Successes:
Failures:
1589-1594- War in the Netherlands
Led by:
Motives:
Successes:
1595- Panama expedition
Led by:
Motives:
Failures:
1596- Expedition of Cadiz
Led by:
Motives:
Successes:
Failures:
Historian’s views:
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Protestant Policy?
· Best foreign relation would be Scotland – who is protestant
· Intervened in Holland
· Intervened with the French to help the Huguenots
· Intervened with Scotland to help the Protestant Scottish Lords
· Intervened in Holland
· Intervened with the French to help the Huguenots
· Intervened with Scotland to help the Protestant Scottish Lords
However...
Scotland:
o Security and removing the French
o Enemy’s enemy – want the Catholics out o Elizabeth is more bothered about the French threat 1560-68
1586-72
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France
1562-64
Elizabeth’s priority is to not be invaded Elizabeth accepts England’s weak position – Troyes |
Opportunistic Policy:
o Piracy
o Scottish division
o Stealing of the Spanish gold in the harbours
- Takes advantage of other countries problems to secure England’s position:
o Piracy
o Scottish division
o Stealing of the Spanish gold in the harbours
Marriage Card:
o What happens if France and Spain make up?
- Why fight when marriage alliances are still an option
- French and Spanish need to maintain cordial relations with England so not to force Elizabeth to look to the other side
- Can’t last forever –
o What happens if France and Spain make up?
Mary Queen of Scots
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The Problem:
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Threat Subsides
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Threat Returns
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Fall of Mary
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The Aftermath
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War in Scotland
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English Intervention
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Plots
Ridolfi Plot
o Overthrow Elizabeth o Mary to marry Norfolk o Mary to be put on the throne
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Throckmorton Plot
o The Spain should land in Lancashire (a fantasy) o Landing in Sussex by Duke of Guise
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The Parry Plot
o Parry converted to the militant catholic cause whilst he had been undertaking espionage against them
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Babington Plot
o Long-term plan was an invasion by the Spanish forces and the Catholic league in France in hope to restore the old religion to England
o Sent Gifford to Paris to obtain the confidence of Morgan who was locked in Bastille (who had worked for the Earl of Shrewsbury who was an early jailor of Queen Mary and had become acquainted with her due through him) as he had become involved in the Parry plot in Paris o Gifford was arrested in 1885 returning to England with letters from Morgan to Mary and Walsingham released him as long as he worked as a double agent in the Babington plot
o Gifford approached the French ambassador to England and described a new correspondence arrangement which had been designed by Walsingham o Gifford and Paulet (Mary’s jailor) arranged a local brewer to move Mary’s letters in and out of her ‘prison’ o Phelippes then received the messages, decoded them and sent them to Walsingham and after they had been read forwarded them to their intended respondent o Walsingham could stop the plot at any time but waited until Mary had given evidence enough to have committed treason |
Marriage
Marriage – The Dilemma
- Marrying an Englishman would be popular with the English people. However, it could give his family enhanced status and potentially too much power. This could also antagonise other powerful suitors.
- Marrying a foreign prince would help England to make alliances. However, it could be unpopular with the English people and involve England becoming involved in other countries’ conflicts.
Elizabeth's view
Elizabeth believed that marriage and the succession were part of her prerogative- and was angered by the Council’s and Parliament’s attempts to discuss them.
Elizabeth believed that marriage and the succession were part of her prerogative- and was angered by the Council’s and Parliament’s attempts to discuss them.
Potential Suitors in the 1560s
Robert Dudley
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Philip of Spain
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Prince Erik of Sweden
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Haigh’s View
Elizabeth had taken a political decision never to marry- she had no intention of changing her mind.
Doran’s View
Elizabeth was aware of the pressure to produce an heir, and did consider marriage. However, she eventually decided the disadvantages outweighed the benefits- and was put off by disagreements within Council about who she should marry.
Elizabeth had taken a political decision never to marry- she had no intention of changing her mind.
Doran’s View
Elizabeth was aware of the pressure to produce an heir, and did consider marriage. However, she eventually decided the disadvantages outweighed the benefits- and was put off by disagreements within Council about who she should marry.
Crisis of 1562
The succession issue became a crisis in 1562, when Elizabeth developed smallpox and it seemed likely that she would die. The Council feared civil war, foreign invasion and religious turmoil unless the succession was managed properly. The problem was that they disagreed about who the successor should be.
Potential Successors
Lady Catherine Grey
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Lady Mary Grey
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Mary Queen of Scots
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Aftermath of the Crisis
- When Elizabeth recovered, she suggested Dudley as Protector in the event of her death- this worried Cecil.
- The 1563 Parliament debated marriage and the succession, but Elizabeth refused to commit to a marriage.
- Autumn 1563- Marriage negotiations began with Archduke Charles
- After the death of Charles’ father, the new Emperor (Charles’ brother) insisted on a public Catholic place of worship for Charles and his courtiers- this led to the breakdown of talks.
- 1566- Parliament, prompted by Cecil and Dudley, again pressed Elizabeth to marry. Elizabeth banished Dudley from the Presence Chamber (the central part of Court life), and publicly condemned other Councillors and Parliament.
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Northern Rebellion 1569
The Northern Rebellion was the only significant rebellion against Elizabeth. It took place mainly in Durham and North Yorkshire in November-December 1569. A second rising was attempted in Cumberland in February 1570. Both attempts were a failure.
Context
- The northern counties of England were governed by the President of the Council of the North. Elizabeth chose non-northerners for this post.
- The President in 1569 was Sussex- although he was a southerner, he shared the conservative religious views of the northern nobles.
- Durham had historically been governed by its bishop. Although his power had been reduced by Henry, the bishop still had a share in government. The bishop in 1569 was James Pilkington, a radical Protestant.
- The Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland were Catholics, who had been angered not only by Pilkington’s reforms, but also by being cut out of northern government.
Cause of the rebellion
The Traditional View- Courtly Conspiracy
- Norfolk (Westmorland’s brother in law) had considered a plan to restore Mary to the Scottish throne, marry her, and ensure that their children were Elizabeth’s successors.
- Elizabeth discovered the plan and was furious; MacCaffrey and Jones argue that its failure led Westmorland to rebel. His aim was to send troops into England to liberate Mary and marry her to Norfolk.
- However, there is no direct evidence for this argument- for instance, the rebels never made a significant advance into the heart of England to attempt to free Mary.
- Kesselring gives a balanced view: “While the marriage plan cannot be treated as a direct cause of the rebellion, it directly increased Elizabeth’s fears and contributed to the more general sense of crisis that gave rise to the revolt.”
Other Factors
Local Factors
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Religion
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Militancy
Many close associates of the Earls were militant in their views on Elizabeth -these included Richard Norton, Christopher Neville + the Countess of Westmorland (she shamed the leaders into fighting when Norfolk encouraged them not to fight)
After-thoughts
Why did the rebellion fail?
- Disorganisation- rebels’ aims were unclear; Northumberland and Westmorland lacked political skills
- No chance of foreign support
- Quick response from the government- e.g. Mary moved to a safe place
- Sussex (helped by other loyalists, Hunsdon and Bowes) strongly supported Elizabeth
- Haigh argues that Dudley effectively raised an army in the Midlands (HOWEVER: other historians point out that the rebels had already fled by the time this army reached the north. They also claim that Dudley was more concerned about undermining Sussex and promoting himself than about direct war with the rebels.)
Consequences?
- 700 rebels executed, including Northumberland. Westmorland never left Court in the Netherlands.
- Rebel leaders’ lands were taken over by the Crown. Some of this was then given to trusted members of the gentry. Although Northumberland’s family regained some land, the two main landowners in Durham were the Church and the Crown. The power of the nobles in the north-East had gone forever.
- A new President of the Council of the North was chosen- the Earl of Huntingdon. He was a Puritan southerner, related to Elizabeth. He was trusted to uphold Protestant reforms.
Significance?
- It showed that government worked- Sussex acted well in difficult circumstances. Cecil’s careful study of a map of Durham paid off.
- It also showed some limitations of government- little understanding of differences between north and south; poor treatment of northern Earls before the rebellion
- Showed some of the problems of trying to raise an army- Elizabeth was very reliant on Dudley, who was more interested in outmanoeuvring Sussex (see above)
- Showed how ruthless Elizabeth was in punishing the rebels (it is possible that Bowes/Hundson executed fewer than Elizabeth actually ordered!)
- Rebellion was limited mainly to Durham and North Yorkshire- although other northern earls were also conservative, they did not support Northumberland. Little enthusiasm to get rid of Elizabeth, even among people who didn’t particularly approve of her (disagreements about what could replace Elizabethan government)
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Council and Parliament after 1571
Members of the Council
Lord Burghley:
· Replaced Winchester as Lord Treasurer · Baron Burghley · Managed parliament · Supervised the Exchequer ·Conservative approach in expenditure (parsimonious) |
Sir Francis Walsingham:
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Sir Walter Mildmay:
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Sir Christopher Hatton:
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1572 Cecil becomes Lord Treasurer and is made Baron Burghley. He still: coordinated the Privy Council, managed parliament, and supervised the Exchequer and Courts of Ward. Burghley (Cecil) adopted a conservative approach to royal expenditure which would pay off in ensuring there were funds when the wars in the Netherlands and with Spain required it. Burghley (Cecil) failed to reform the Crown’s system of raising revenue which meant that money would remain tight and increasingly the lack of funds became a major issue. Revenue from customs, Crown lands and Wardships* continued to fall but different forms of revenue were not secured. William MacCathrey talks of this being an increasing problem with major ramifications during the war with Spain. The major barrier to change on the issue of Crown revenues, however appears to have been Elizabeth not her council.
*Wardship
The Court of Wards and Liveries, which replaced a previous, looser, system of administering the king's feudal dues, was established as the result of two statutes in 1540 (32 Henry VIII c. 46) and 1542 (33 Henry VIII c. 22). When a tenant-in-chief (holding land directly from the Crown) died, his or her land reverted to the crown until the heir paid a sum of money (a relief), and was then able to take possession (livery of seisin) of the lands. However, if the heir was under age (under 21 for a male heir, under 14 for an heiress) then the wardship of the heir, custody of their lands and the right to arrange their marriage passed to the monarch, until the heir came of age. The wardship and marriage was not usually kept in Crown hands, but was sold, sometimes to the next of kin, often simply to the highest bidder.
The Court was a financial institution, responsible for collecting these feudal revenues. However, it also had to cope with the practical and legal consequences arising from wardship and livery. When feudal tenures were abolished by the Long Parliament in 1645, the Court also came to an end. The abolition of the Court was confirmed by Charles II in 1660 (12 Charles II c. 24).
The Court of Wards and Liveries, which replaced a previous, looser, system of administering the king's feudal dues, was established as the result of two statutes in 1540 (32 Henry VIII c. 46) and 1542 (33 Henry VIII c. 22). When a tenant-in-chief (holding land directly from the Crown) died, his or her land reverted to the crown until the heir paid a sum of money (a relief), and was then able to take possession (livery of seisin) of the lands. However, if the heir was under age (under 21 for a male heir, under 14 for an heiress) then the wardship of the heir, custody of their lands and the right to arrange their marriage passed to the monarch, until the heir came of age. The wardship and marriage was not usually kept in Crown hands, but was sold, sometimes to the next of kin, often simply to the highest bidder.
The Court was a financial institution, responsible for collecting these feudal revenues. However, it also had to cope with the practical and legal consequences arising from wardship and livery. When feudal tenures were abolished by the Long Parliament in 1645, the Court also came to an end. The abolition of the Court was confirmed by Charles II in 1660 (12 Charles II c. 24).
The Council
- Execution of Norfolk and death of Winchester reduced Catholic/conservative influence on Council
- Small, talented core group of Councillors (8)
- Mainly Protestant (Cecil, Dudley, Walsingham, Mildmay) but balanced by some conservatives (e.g. Hatton, Sussex)
- Strong, united decision making (“political homogeneity previously unknown”- Adams)
- More Catholic councillors tended to be sidelined in decision making
Problems:
- Disputes over Elizabeth marrying Anjou AND military intervention in the Netherlands
- 1579- Council refused to agree to Elizabeth’s plan to marry Anjou (MacCaffrey: Council demonstrating its “latent power”)
- 1587- Execution of Mary Q of S led to breakdown in relations- Elizabeth blamed Council for forcing her to execute Mary
External threats
Netherlands intervention
o Sparked off a full-scale revolt o Little success for the rebels
o Elizabeth rejected the title Governor General of the Provinces (which Dudley later accepted and offended Elizabeth by doing so) o Philip took this treaty as an act of war o Pay for a force of 6, 400 infantry and 1, 000 cavalry under English command
o Intercepted and destroyed ships on the Spanish supply lines o Captured around 1600–1700 tons of barrel staves
o Stanley and Yorke (English officers) deserted and joined Parma o English commanders quarrelled among themselves o Leicester quarrelled with the Dutch over taxation, religion and trying to prohibit trade with southern Netherlands |
R B Wernham: The making of Elizabethan foreign policy
Charles Wilson:Queen Elizabeth and the revolt of the Netherlands
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Wallace MacCaffery: Queen Elizabeth and the making of policy 1572-1588
Susan Doran: England and Europe 1485-1603
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How consistent was Elizabeth’s policy regarding the Netherlands?
Elizabeth increases the anti-Spanish direction of the foreign policy towards the Netherlands as time progresses, which suggests that she isn’t as consistent as Wernham would suggest. However, Elizabeth has a main goal to avoid war and keep the Netherlands from being completely overrun by another country, which suggests that she does have some consistency when it comes to her policy, which makes me believe that MacCaffery is the historian whose view is more evidenced as she was not entirely consistent but isn’t as inconsistent as Doran or Wilson would argue.
How successful was Elizabeth’s policy regarding the Netherlands?
Elizabeth was marginally unsuccessful with her policy regarding the Netherlands. Her policy began to deteriorate as time progressed and the Spanish gained more control and her hopes for peace generally backfired such as when she signs the treaty of Nonsuch and the Spanish see this as a declaration of war. Yet, since there were some successes with her policy regarding the Netherlands, such as Francis Drake’s intervention being able to raid the Spanish ports, it could be said that she did have some successful policies. Overall, MacCaffery appears to be correct with his statement that she had some short-term successes with being able to prevent French control over the Netherlands and push the Spanish troops back, but she wasn’t as successful as Wernham states as there were quite a lot of failures with her policies.
Elizabeth increases the anti-Spanish direction of the foreign policy towards the Netherlands as time progresses, which suggests that she isn’t as consistent as Wernham would suggest. However, Elizabeth has a main goal to avoid war and keep the Netherlands from being completely overrun by another country, which suggests that she does have some consistency when it comes to her policy, which makes me believe that MacCaffery is the historian whose view is more evidenced as she was not entirely consistent but isn’t as inconsistent as Doran or Wilson would argue.
How successful was Elizabeth’s policy regarding the Netherlands?
Elizabeth was marginally unsuccessful with her policy regarding the Netherlands. Her policy began to deteriorate as time progressed and the Spanish gained more control and her hopes for peace generally backfired such as when she signs the treaty of Nonsuch and the Spanish see this as a declaration of war. Yet, since there were some successes with her policy regarding the Netherlands, such as Francis Drake’s intervention being able to raid the Spanish ports, it could be said that she did have some successful policies. Overall, MacCaffery appears to be correct with his statement that she had some short-term successes with being able to prevent French control over the Netherlands and push the Spanish troops back, but she wasn’t as successful as Wernham states as there were quite a lot of failures with her policies.
• Sea Beggars – Dutch pirates expelled from England 1572
• Pacification of Ghent 1576 – alliance of Protestant Dutch to remove Spanish influence form Netherlands following ‘Spanish Fury’ in Antwerp
• Union of Utrecht Jan 1579 -united the northern Dutch provinces (v Spain)
• Union of Arras Jan 1579 – southern states loyal to Spain
• Catholic League in France – led by Guise against Henry III, allied with Philip of Spain
• Treaty of Nonsuch 1585 agreed to help rebels with troops and money and gain Brill and Flushing in return, Philip took it as an act of war
• Pacification of Ghent 1576 – alliance of Protestant Dutch to remove Spanish influence form Netherlands following ‘Spanish Fury’ in Antwerp
• Union of Utrecht Jan 1579 -united the northern Dutch provinces (v Spain)
• Union of Arras Jan 1579 – southern states loyal to Spain
• Catholic League in France – led by Guise against Henry III, allied with Philip of Spain
• Treaty of Nonsuch 1585 agreed to help rebels with troops and money and gain Brill and Flushing in return, Philip took it as an act of war
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Extra stuff
Spanish Fury
Spanish Fury
- Pillaging in the Netherlands committed by Spanish troops in the years 1572-79
- 'Spanish Fury' often refers to the sack of Antwerp in 1576
- In 1572 the sea beggars were driven out of the English harbours which led to anti-royalist rebellions in Zeeland and Holland
- Under the command of Alva's son in 1572 the city was sacked by his slaughtering, raping and pillaging troops
- Causes were the lack of pay for the soldiers by Philip II - as Elizabeth had seized the ships with the money to pay them
- The Spanish soldiers were angry at fighting without pay or rest
- Spanish soldiers decided to pay themselves by sacking Antwerp
- 7, 000 lives were lost and a great deal of property
- Brought ruin to the Antwerp cloth market
- The aftermath led to the Pacification of Ghent where both Calvinists and Catholics wanted the expulsion of all Spanish troops
Spanish Armada
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Steps towards war:
1584
1585
Sending of the Armada:
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Philip finally decided to send the Armada
because a decisive victory would be better than a long-term conflict in both
the Netherlands and the Caribbean
· Simon Adams: War broke out…because Elizabeth and Philip both lost their nerve.” · The preparation took over two years, a delay partly caused by Drake’s attack on the Spanish fleet in Cadiz · Philip ignored Parma’s view that invading England before he had full control of the Netherlands was a mistake. |
Why did the Armada fail?
- The original commander, Santa Cruz, died and was replaced by Medina Sidonia. He had no experience of command at sea. However, he did delegate effectively to more experienced officers. Also, despite Medina being in charge, the English still struggled to defeat the Armada in the first week of August.
- Medina chose not to make an early, possibly decisive attack on the English when they were anchored in Plymouth harbour, preferring to follow the original plan of landing in the Netherlands to collect Parma’s army before launching an attack.
- The English skilfully sailed into the wind in order to go round the Armada. This enabled them to end up to the west of the Armada, with the wind behind them. This meant they could now move quickly and have more control over their direction.
- Drake distracted Medina, forcing him to engage the English ships rather than taking control of the Solent. (This would have given him the Isle of Wight as a base to shelter until Parma’s troops were ready.)
- The Spanish were rarely close enough to the English to use their preferred weapon of grappling hooks, which would have forced the English into face to face combat
- The English line formation worked effectively, especially as the guns were along the side of the ships, meaning several ships could fire at once. The Spanish crescent formation meant ships were close together and occasionally collided, as well as running the risk of firing at each other.
- Poor communications at sea meant that the Spanish were close to the Netherlands before Parma started preparing to meet them. In addition, Parma did not have full control of the coastline, and Dutch vessels blockaded the route of many soldiers.
- Making good use of favourable winds and tides, the English sent fire ships into the Spanish fleet who were anchored off Gravelines. Although few Spanish ships were lost, the Armada was scattered, lost vital anchors and cables, and was forced away from Calais. This made it even harder for the Armada to meet up with Parma’s troops.
- The English exploited this disruption by directly attacking Medina Sidonia and several ships. Three ships were sunk and another three were driven ashore, where they were taken by Dutch rebels. Over 600 Spanish were killed. The English fleet could manoeuvre much more easily than the heavy Spanish ships, and had better guns. They also sensibly avoided trying to board Spanish ships full of soldiers, but did get close enough to inflict damage on the Armada.
- The English sailors were generally well-trained, skilful and determined. (On the other hand, the cannons they used inflicted relatively little damage in the early battles, partly because the Armada was too far away.)
- Meanwhile, the Spanish had few trained gunners. Inexperienced soldiers struggled with the complicated weaponry- this meant the guns were fired on average only once an hour.
- Just as the English ran short of ammunition, the wind changed and the Spanish feared being run aground on the sandbanks. Although heading towards the North Sea saved some Spanish lives, it meant they were unable to meet Parma. The plan had failed.
- Since the English blocked the Channel, the Armada had to return to Spain by the hazardous route round Scotland and Ireland, losing many more ships in the stormy conditions. Food shortages also increased the sailors’ death rate.
Last Years
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Changing Faces:
- Between 1587 and 1591, several talented ministers died, including Sadler, Leicester, Mildmay, Walsingham, Croft, Warwick, Shrewsbury and Hatton.
- Since Elizabeth’s Council had been small and worked closely together, this was a major blow. By 1597, there were only 11 councillors.
- Elizabeth failed to make immediate replacements and ended up relying heavily on Burghley. Although he was becoming less effective, she refused to let him retire.
- Factional fighting had been contained during the early part of Elizabeth’s reign. In this period, a rivalry between Robert Cecil (Burghley’s son) and Essex (Leicester’s stepson) was not contained, and posed a serious threat to good government.
- Other new councillors were often sons of former councillors who were less skilful than their fathers.
- The lack of senior noblemen on Council “mattered to contemporaries because it suggested that Council no longer included the most…..important families in the land.” (Paul Hammer)
Other Issues
- The lack of a named successor led to increased uncertainty as Elizabeth entered her sixties.
- As she aged, Elizabeth’s skills of political management declined. The younger generation of courtiers, including Essex, felt she was out of touch with their needs.
- This led to hostility from some courtiers who emphasised military values, were unhappy with a monarch who could not fight, blamed Elizabeth for military problems in the 1590s, and longed for a return to male rule.
- It also led to poor relations with many of her ladies in waiting, whose enthusiasm for virginity was somewhat less apparent than Elizabeth’s!
Patronage
Ø
Because Tudor government had no paid civil
service or local officials, PATRONAGE (rewarding the governing classes) was
important in maintaining the system.
Ø For some, it was an honour or a social obligation to serve Elizabeth, and they needed no other reward. For others, promotion and other rewards were very important.
Ø Elizabeth gave out relatively few knighthoods- this made the position even more prestigious. She had a similar approach to giving away or selling Crown lands as a favour.
Ø A common reward, especially in Elizabeth’s later years, was the selling of patents of monopoly- these were the exclusive rights to control the sale of a particular product.
Ø Another common reward was appointing people to “offices of profit”- government jobs which paid fees. However, the fees were inadequate, leading to widespread corruption.
Ø Despite this there was huge competition for promotion- because of possible economic and political benefits.
Ø The main “patronage broker” (someone who controls appointments) was Burghley (who was trusted by Elizabeth), although he allowed others, including Leicester and Hatton, to have an influence too.
Ø For some, it was an honour or a social obligation to serve Elizabeth, and they needed no other reward. For others, promotion and other rewards were very important.
Ø Elizabeth gave out relatively few knighthoods- this made the position even more prestigious. She had a similar approach to giving away or selling Crown lands as a favour.
Ø A common reward, especially in Elizabeth’s later years, was the selling of patents of monopoly- these were the exclusive rights to control the sale of a particular product.
Ø Another common reward was appointing people to “offices of profit”- government jobs which paid fees. However, the fees were inadequate, leading to widespread corruption.
Ø Despite this there was huge competition for promotion- because of possible economic and political benefits.
Ø The main “patronage broker” (someone who controls appointments) was Burghley (who was trusted by Elizabeth), although he allowed others, including Leicester and Hatton, to have an influence too.
- By the 1590s, Leicester and Hatton were dead. Burghley gave more influence to Cecil, who was less keen on allowing others to have an influence. This was a major cause of the Essex/Cecil rivalry.
- Burghley, still the leading figure in the Council, promoted Robert’s career very successfully. This was not just for political reasons; he also wanted to increase the family estate to the size of the estates of the leading nobles.
- Burghley also promoted the careers of some councillors who lacked the talent of earlier councillors. For example, Whitgift became increasingly influential.
FACTIONAL rivalries
- 1596- Essex angered by Cecil’s appointment as Secretary of State while Essex was fighting in Cadiz.
- Hostility increased when Cecil was appointed to make an inventory of the plunder from the Cadiz expedition.
- Essex’s 1597 expedition failed- he had abandoned the Crown’s objectives in an attempt to pursue financial gains. As well as putting him in a desperate financial situation, it angered Elizabeth, leaving her even less likely to promote Essex or his followers.
- Essex left Court, and although Elizabeth tempted him back by making him Earl Marshal, this was a consolation prize after being rejected as Earl of Nottingham.
- His desire to continue fighting Spain led to disputes with the Cecils (who wanted peace) and Elizabeth (who wanted to save money.)
- 1598- Elizabeth rejected Essex’s advice on the new Lord Deputy of Ireland, choosing Cecil’s candidate (Knollys) over his candidate (Carew.) Essex turned his back on Elizabeth, she slapped him, and he almost drew his sword.
- Essex withdrew from Court, refusing to apologise to Elizabeth for three months. This was despite the pleas of his followers, who knew their own futures had been damaged (especially at a time when there were plenty of new opportunities caused by Burghley’s death.)
- Essex’s hopes of succeeding Burghley were ruined. Although he became Lord Lieutenant in Ireland, in an attempt to win Elizabeth’s favour through military success, this position only made the situation worse.
Essex Positives
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Essex Negatives
o Resented his influence over patronage o Exaggerated Cecil’s animosity towards him
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Cecil Positives
o Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
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Cecil Negatives
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Parliament
Reasons for the decline:
1. Council management of the Commons became less skilful with the death of Hatton and Mildmay. Many of the new councillors lacked their ability to influence Parliament.
2. Elizabeth’s demands for subsidies for war against Spain were unpopular with MPs at a time of economic crisis.
3. Poor Council management plus growing resentment among MPs led to a rift between Elizabeth and Parliament. This widened in 1601 over the issue of monopolies.
1. Council management of the Commons became less skilful with the death of Hatton and Mildmay. Many of the new councillors lacked their ability to influence Parliament.
2. Elizabeth’s demands for subsidies for war against Spain were unpopular with MPs at a time of economic crisis.
3. Poor Council management plus growing resentment among MPs led to a rift between Elizabeth and Parliament. This widened in 1601 over the issue of monopolies.
Economic Issues:
- Marian Book of Rates not revised- this led to falling customs revenue
- Parliamentary subsidies raised less money as the valuations of how much people owned were out of date.
- War with Spain meant more money was needed- the Crown had to resort to increasing selling of patents of monopoly
- War at a time of scarce resources meant military objectives were rarely achieved, especially in Ireland.
CATHOLICISM 1588-1603
- The defeat of the Armada did not lead to the relaxation of the penal laws against Catholics.
- In fact, fearing another armada might be sent, the authorities continued to repress Catholics.
- Walsingham continued to support anti-Catholic spies. Huntingdon (President of the Council of the North) continued his pursuit of Catholics, including Bost and Swalewell, who were executed in 1594.
- Priest hunters such as Topcliffe and Sanderson carried on their role- 53 priests and 35 lay Catholics were executed between 1590 and 1603.
Recusancy
Doran argues that Elizabeth knew recusancy would never be
eliminated- so she used it to boost royal finances. Elizabeth wanted to
encourage attendance at the Church of England without reducing Catholics to
poverty.
Evidence that the recusancy drive was successful
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Evidence that the recusancy drive was limited
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Divisions between Catholics
- The majority of English Catholics, especially secular priests, remained loyal to Elizabeth.
- Others, especially Jesuits such as Robert Parsons, and pro-Spanish priests, believed they were obliged to overthrow Elizabeth. They pointed to the Pope’s excommunication as evidence.
- Pritchard: “Jesuits argued for the subordination of all other loyalties to the conquest of England by the militant forces of the Counter-Reformation….the great majority of English Catholics showed little enthusiasm for this.
The Archpriest Controvesy
- Many secular priests and Jesuits were imprisoned at Wisbech Castle.
- The Jesuit William Weston and 18 other Jesuits asked to be separated from the other prisoners after Weston had tried to provide moral leadership to all the priests.
- The Jesuit leader in England, Henry Garnet, supported Weston’s attempts to provide leadership; opponents claimed that Garnet had no right to control secular priests.
- 1598- George Blackwell was appointed as Archpriest- a new job which gave him control over secular priests in England and Scotland.
- Secular priests were unhappy- some conservatives disliked the idea of change. In addition, the job had been suggested by Parsons, so secular priests feared Blackwell was a Jesuit who would soon bring all priests under Jesuit domination.
- After secular priests complained to Rome, the Pope ruled that Blackwell should stay in charge, but that he should not directly consult with Jesuits.
Ø English Catholics were clearly divided – this weakened the Catholic mission, just as the Church of England was becoming more confident.
Ø The secular priests even tried to do a deal with Elizabeth, promising her loyalty and a break with the Jesuits, if she agreed to tolerate the secular priests.
Ø Although Elizabeth refused, this gave her confidence that the vast majority of Catholics could combine religious loyalty to the Pope with political loyalty to Elizabeth.
Ø The secular priests even tried to do a deal with Elizabeth, promising her loyalty and a break with the Jesuits, if she agreed to tolerate the secular priests.
Ø Although Elizabeth refused, this gave her confidence that the vast majority of Catholics could combine religious loyalty to the Pope with political loyalty to Elizabeth.
Puritans 1588-1603
The Collapse of Seperatism
- Late 1580s- Increasing activity by Separatists (Puritans who wanted to set up their own independent Church) in London
- Although Separatist numbers were still small, Parliament passed the Act Against Seditious Sectaries in 1593 in an attempt to crush the movement. One explanation for such harsh treatment is the strong views of Archbishop Whitgift.
- Separatist leaders Barrow and Greenwood were executed for circulating “seditious books”, using the anti-Catholic laws of 1581. This destroyed Separatism until well into the 17th century.
Reasons for the decline of Presbyteriansm
1. Attacks by Whtigift
2. The war against Catholic Spain forced Protestants to unite against the common enemy
3. Leading Puritans at Court died e.g. Leicester and Walsingham
4. The publication of the Martin Marprelate tracts
2. The war against Catholic Spain forced Protestants to unite against the common enemy
3. Leading Puritans at Court died e.g. Leicester and Walsingham
4. The publication of the Martin Marprelate tracts
Martin Marprelate Tracts
- These were anonymous pamphlets published in 1588-89, as a last desperate attempt by aggressive Puritans to show their opposition to the Church of England.
- Collinson argues that the combination of humour, aggression and down-to-earth style meant the pamphlets were read and enjoyed by many people, including some more Protestant councillors.
- Whitgift was described as the “Antichrist” and accused of an affair with a married woman. Other bishops were accused of being dishonest, adulterers, or stupid. The role of “bishop” was described as “unchristian”.
- The author was never discovered- a case was brought against Thomas Cartwright but it collapsed. Separatist John Penry and Job Throckmorton MP were also suspected.
- However, the pamphlets were so extreme that they alienated many religious people, rather than converting them to the Puritan cause.
The Response of the Church of England
- The Church actively defended itself against the allegations in the Marprelate pamphlets, publishing several pamphlets of its own to counter the points made by the Puritans.
- Bishop Bancroft preached a sermon, arguing that the job of bishop had been created by God and that bishops were called by God and should not be criticised.
- Although Elizabeth may have disagreed, having criticised many bishops herself, she was encouraged that the Church was becoming more confident in defending itself.
The Triumph of the Church of England
- As Presbyterianism disappeared, Puritans generally managed to fit within the Church of England.
- Puritans including Archbishop Hutton were able to preach sermons, and encourage ordinary priests to do so too, while operating within the structures of the Church of England.
- Both Puritans and non-Puritans (e.g. Whitgift) accepted the Calvinist beliefs of Elizabeth’s church. These had been re-stated in the Lambeth Articles of 1595. (Calvinism involved a belief in predestination- the idea that God had already chosen who would be “saved”.)
- The Book of Common Prayer was by now well established and popular. The Church was also increasingly good at looking after both priests and ordinary believers (this was its “pastoral” role.)
- Although Puritan attitudes caused resentment and cultural division in many local communities, ordinary Puritans remained within the Church (partly in the hope of purifying it further!)
The Big Picture
- By 1603, religion was no longer a divisive political issue.
This was the result of the decline of popular Catholicism and Separatism, the divisions between the remaining Catholics, and the integration of Puritans within the mainstream Church.
Foreign Policy
IRELAND
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The Tyrone Rebellion (The Nine Years War)
On the death of Shane O'Neill, Turlough O'Neill (1531-95) became Lord of Tyrone. Turlough attempted to establish an independent power-base in Ulster. The English government responded by backing Hugh O'Neill (1550-1616) as a rival leader. Hugh O'Neill was given an English education and modern military training and experience. The English helped him assert control over part of the Tyrone territory and in 1585 Elizabeth made him Earl of Tyrone. However, Hugh O'Neill was ambitious to be far more than Elizabeth's favourite vassal. During the late 1580s he began to make contacts with Rome, Spain and his Irish rivals.
In April 1593, Tyrone directed his brother (Cormac) to revolt, but himself pretended continued loyalty to the crown. Only in February 1595 did Tyrone openly join the rebellion and move against the English garrison at Blackwater Fort. He equipped a modern army and proclaimed himself the champion of native Irish Catholics against English Protestant interlopers.
Tyrone continued to try and negotiate alliance with traditional enemies amongst the Gaelic Lords. In 1596, he persuaded the chieftains of Munster to rebel. He was also able to obtain some money and munitions from Spain.
The English were preoccupied with the continued threat of Spanish invasion and sent only limited forces to Ireland. The mounted uncoordinated expeditions that were defeated at the Battle of Clontibert (1595) and the Battle of Yellow Ford (1598). Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, who was then created Lord Deputy, had no success in winning back Irish hearts and minds. Tyrone's victories provoked uprisings all over Ireland, and English settlers were driven from their dwellings. In 1599 the Spanish tried to send troops by sea, but bad weather stopped their fleet from reaching Ireland.
Charles Blount, Baron Mountjoy (1563-1606) replaced Essex as Lord Deputy in 1600. Blount had no interest in compromising with the Irish rebels; he set about defeating them militarily. An able soldier, he established a reliable supply chain, and then set about the systematic destruction of resistance.
Mountjoy first secured the Pale. He then defeated all resistance in Munster - just before the arrival In late summer 1601 of about 4,000 Spanish troops at Kinsale. Mountjoy moved promptly to assemble about 9,000 troops and besiege the Spaniards. In November the English gained control of the entrance to the harbour, cutting off the possibility of retreat.
Tyrone's army marched south to try and join forces, and in December the Spanish tried to break out of the town. Mountjoy defeated both the Irish and the Spanish with very few casualties, forcing Tyrone to retreat north and the Spanish to conclude a truce and withdraw. Mountjoy pursued Tyrone and his army to the north, and eventually forced him to surrender unconditionally (March 1603).
Elizabeth's victory over the Irish cost a great deal of money. It cost about £2 million to suppress the revolt; £1.25 million of it over the period 1599-1603. The military victory did nothing to reconcile the Irish to English rule, and the success of Catholic missionary priests reinforced the religious dimension of the struggle. The English succeeded in denying her Catholic enemies a strongpoint off her Western Coast, but only military force would maintain Ireland's subjection for many centuries to come
Summary of the Rebellion:
On the death of Shane O'Neill, Turlough O'Neill (1531-95) became Lord of Tyrone. Turlough attempted to establish an independent power-base in Ulster. The English government responded by backing Hugh O'Neill (1550-1616) as a rival leader. Hugh O'Neill was given an English education and modern military training and experience. The English helped him assert control over part of the Tyrone territory and in 1585 Elizabeth made him Earl of Tyrone. However, Hugh O'Neill was ambitious to be far more than Elizabeth's favourite vassal. During the late 1580s he began to make contacts with Rome, Spain and his Irish rivals.
In April 1593, Tyrone directed his brother (Cormac) to revolt, but himself pretended continued loyalty to the crown. Only in February 1595 did Tyrone openly join the rebellion and move against the English garrison at Blackwater Fort. He equipped a modern army and proclaimed himself the champion of native Irish Catholics against English Protestant interlopers.
Tyrone continued to try and negotiate alliance with traditional enemies amongst the Gaelic Lords. In 1596, he persuaded the chieftains of Munster to rebel. He was also able to obtain some money and munitions from Spain.
The English were preoccupied with the continued threat of Spanish invasion and sent only limited forces to Ireland. The mounted uncoordinated expeditions that were defeated at the Battle of Clontibert (1595) and the Battle of Yellow Ford (1598). Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, who was then created Lord Deputy, had no success in winning back Irish hearts and minds. Tyrone's victories provoked uprisings all over Ireland, and English settlers were driven from their dwellings. In 1599 the Spanish tried to send troops by sea, but bad weather stopped their fleet from reaching Ireland.
Charles Blount, Baron Mountjoy (1563-1606) replaced Essex as Lord Deputy in 1600. Blount had no interest in compromising with the Irish rebels; he set about defeating them militarily. An able soldier, he established a reliable supply chain, and then set about the systematic destruction of resistance.
Mountjoy first secured the Pale. He then defeated all resistance in Munster - just before the arrival In late summer 1601 of about 4,000 Spanish troops at Kinsale. Mountjoy moved promptly to assemble about 9,000 troops and besiege the Spaniards. In November the English gained control of the entrance to the harbour, cutting off the possibility of retreat.
Tyrone's army marched south to try and join forces, and in December the Spanish tried to break out of the town. Mountjoy defeated both the Irish and the Spanish with very few casualties, forcing Tyrone to retreat north and the Spanish to conclude a truce and withdraw. Mountjoy pursued Tyrone and his army to the north, and eventually forced him to surrender unconditionally (March 1603).
Elizabeth's victory over the Irish cost a great deal of money. It cost about £2 million to suppress the revolt; £1.25 million of it over the period 1599-1603. The military victory did nothing to reconcile the Irish to English rule, and the success of Catholic missionary priests reinforced the religious dimension of the struggle. The English succeeded in denying her Catholic enemies a strongpoint off her Western Coast, but only military force would maintain Ireland's subjection for many centuries to come
Summary of the Rebellion:
- 1595- The Earl of Tyrone (Hugh O’Neill) rebelled against Elizabeth- for religious and cultural reasons, but also because of personal ambition.
- Elizabeth, worried about potential Spanish involvement, hoped for a truce at first. However, the rebellion then spread beyond Ulster, as other clans including the O’Donnells and Maguires assisted Tyrone.
- Council began to worry- especially when the Spanish included an Irish group on the 1596 Armada. Although the armada failed, the loss of the Battle of Yellow Ford in August 1598 showed the rebellion was a threat.
- Tyrone now controlled Ulster, the O’Donnells ruled most of Connaught, the O’Mores had Leix-Offaly, and the Munster Plantation was destroyed. Most of Ireland “beyond the Pale” was now outside English control.
- Council feared that Tyrone was close to establishing an independent, Catholic Ireland, supported by Spain.
Ireland Under Elizabeth
Essex In Ireland
The Defeat of the Tyrone Rebellion
The Consequences
1. Much of Ireland had been destroyed and many of the population were now in poverty.
2. Elizabeth had spent huge sums of money on the conflict, contributing to a political crisis in England.
3. The Irish became increasingly resentful of the English.
4. James had to rely on the Old English to rule Ireland, rather than having more direct control. The most important of these was Tyrone!
- 1560- Elizabeth was proclaimed Supreme Governor of the Church of Ireland but found it difficult to impose Protestantism.
- Her policy was to impose “Englishness” on the Irish, encouraging the use of the English rather than the Gaelic language; imposing Protestantism rather than Catholicism; and implementing English rather than traditional Irish laws.
- Relations between England and both the Gaelic Irish and Old English worsened. This was the result of English settlers aiming to become rich at the expense of the Irish. It was also caused by the frequent English use of martial law (using the army to administer the law.)
- The relationship with the O’Neill clan was particularly bad; in the south, there were rebellions from 1569-73 and 1579-82.
- The second rebellion, which also involved a Spanish invasion, was brutally suppressed by the Lord Deputy. This made relations even worse.
Essex In Ireland
- 1599- Elizabeth appointed Essex as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. He disobeyed her orders to move north into Ulster. Instead, despite his large army, he stayed in Leinster and then Munster.
- When he did eventually move north, he made a truce with Tyrone rather than confronting him. To Elizabeth’s fury, Essex then returned to England.
- Once the truce expired, Tyrone moved to Kinsale on the south coast, hoping to link up with a Spanish army.
The Defeat of the Tyrone Rebellion
- After Essex left, the English made progress. Sir George Carew captured Cork and recaptured most of Munster. The new Lord Lieutenant, Mountjoy, helped by troops commanded by Sir Henry Docwra, pushed Tyrone back into Ulster.
- O’Neill was briefly saved by the landing of 3000 Spanish troops in Kinsale- this distracted Mountjoy who had to rush south.
- Tyrone also moved south. Helped by O’Donnell, he fought the English at Kinsale in December 1601.
- The English won; O’Donnell escaped with the Spanish. Tyrone retreated to Ulster, where he negotiated a peace with Mountjoy in 1603. The Irish were treated generously, mainly because Mountjoy was keen to return to England to attend the new King, James I.
The Consequences
1. Much of Ireland had been destroyed and many of the population were now in poverty.
2. Elizabeth had spent huge sums of money on the conflict, contributing to a political crisis in England.
3. The Irish became increasingly resentful of the English.
4. James had to rely on the Old English to rule Ireland, rather than having more direct control. The most important of these was Tyrone!
FRANCE
Elizabeth Sends Troops
Parma Gets Involved
Elizabeth Helps Again
- 1589: Henry III was assassinated; his successor, Henry IV was a Huguenot
- Henry struggled to establish his authority, since most of France (including Paris) were controlled by the Catholic League, supported by Philip
- Elizabeth, under pressure from Walsingham, promised Henry 3600 troops. Just before they were due to be sent, Henry won a victory against the League.
- Elizabeth hoped this would mean the troops could stay at home. However, their commander, Lord Willoughby set off.
- Henry made sure the troops stayed in France- they helped him to regain much of northern France from the League.
Parma Gets Involved
- By the end of the year, Henry was in a much stronger position, thanks in part to English troops. This led Parma to send more troops to help the League.
- Parma’s force failed to win the Battle of Ivry but did stop Henry retaking Paris.
- By sending some troops to France, Parma reduced the pressure on the Dutch rebels, who began to gain ground in the northern Netherlands.
Elizabeth Helps Again
- Nov 1590- Henry feared another invasion by Parma; also, more troops from Spain had now reached France and the pro-Spanish Duke of Savoy had invaded France.
- Henry asked for military and financial help from Elizabeth.
- English troops were sent to Normandy, where they achieved little.
- They were also sent to Brittany, where they destroyed the Spanish fortress at Crozon, and stopped the Spanish making further gains in this region.
- Elizabeth and Burghley became increasingly resentful of Henry’s use of English troops to solve France’s problems.
NETHERLANDS
- The Netherlands remained the main area for Anglo-Spanish war on land.
- After Leicester was brought home, relations between Elizabeth and Dutch rebels improved.
- Willoughby’s army beat the Spanish at Bergen-op-Zoom, but lost at Geertruidenberg.
- Willoughby was soon replaced by Sir Francis Vere, who was inexperienced but effective, and worked well with rebel leader Maurice of Nassau.
- Parma was hampered by having to send troops to France, as well as by mutinies. As a result, the rebels regained land, including Zutphen and Deventer. By 1594, the Spanish had been expelled from the northern Netherlands.
- The English played an important role in this victory, thanks to Vere’s leadership and the amount of money spent by Elizabeth.
- Elizabeth has achieved several aims- the northern Netherlands were independent, and even the southern Netherlands, though under Spanish control, had a degree of autonomy (self-rule). Meanwhile, no other power e.g. France had any influence in the Netherlands.
eSSEX REBELLION
Essex Returns From Ireland
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Essex’s Other Problems
1. Elizabeth did not renew his patent of the sweet wine monopoly- this meant it was harder for him to pay off his debts of £16,000.
2. Essex’s followers continued to be denied promotion. Some, such as Bacon and Knollys, had already abandoned him. His remaining followers were mainly “the desperate and the discredited” (Tillbrook).
Essex’s Original Plan
The Rebellion
Assessing the Rebellion
Tillbrook: “The rebellion was the last throw of the dice by someone who had become desperate and emotionally unhinged.”
Williams: Essex’s supporters had “lost touch with political reality and disastrously exaggerated Essex’s popular support.”
However, Williams also argues that the rebels were “the visible tip of a larger range of discontent”. It is certainly true that, by 1601, Elizabeth had lost much of her authority, and that both she and Cecil were unpopular.
1. Elizabeth did not renew his patent of the sweet wine monopoly- this meant it was harder for him to pay off his debts of £16,000.
2. Essex’s followers continued to be denied promotion. Some, such as Bacon and Knollys, had already abandoned him. His remaining followers were mainly “the desperate and the discredited” (Tillbrook).
Essex’s Original Plan
- Essex began to consider a coup against Cecil. He even asked King James to consider helping him, an action that was close to treason.
- Essex’s followers sponsored a production of Richard II at the Globe Theatre- this also hinted at Essex’s intentions.
- By Christmas 1600, Essex was considering an armed coup, involving securing the Palace of Whitehall, storming the Tower, and removing Cecil’s followers from the Council.
- However, this plan was discovered by Cecil. It was replaced by a more restricted plan to stage a demonstration in the City of London.
The Rebellion
- 8 February- Around 300 of Essex’s supporters gathered at Essex House.
- Four councillors arrived with a message from Elizabeth, telling Essex to send his followers away, and then come to Court.
- Essex held the Councillors hostage, then headed for the City, hoping to win support.
- He got little support; on his return to Essex house, he discovered that the councillors had been released. Meanwhile, Cecil had fortified Whitehall, ready for a possible attack.
- Essex surrendered. He was executed, along with five supporters.
Assessing the Rebellion
Tillbrook: “The rebellion was the last throw of the dice by someone who had become desperate and emotionally unhinged.”
Williams: Essex’s supporters had “lost touch with political reality and disastrously exaggerated Essex’s popular support.”
However, Williams also argues that the rebels were “the visible tip of a larger range of discontent”. It is certainly true that, by 1601, Elizabeth had lost much of her authority, and that both she and Cecil were unpopular.
Economic Policy
· Inherits reforms from Northumberland and Mary
· Uses Patronage sparingly
· Parsimonious (spent little)
Problem?
Long term?
Other revenue streams
Crisis?
· Uses Patronage sparingly
· Parsimonious (spent little)
Problem?
- Cost of war with Spain £161, 000
- Cost of actions in Ireland £1, 000, 000
- Cost of war with Netherlands £2, 000, 000
Long term?
- Not reformed crown revenue
- Monopolies issue
Other revenue streams
- Piracy (attacking Spanish ships)
- New trade routes (due to the embargos with the Netherlands)
Crisis?
- Failure of policy in the last 15 years
- Circumstances (bad) in the last 15 years
- Going back to the start of her reign with lack of reform
sUCCESSION
Discussions About A Successor
Possible Successors
- Although all politicians in this period were obsessed with the succession, they were generally reluctant to discuss it openly, as this could result in being sacked or even a treason charge.
- Peter Wentworth was imprisoned for raising the issue in Parliament in 1593.
- Nevertheless, councillors were keen to make links with candidates in private, knowing that closeness to the successor would help them to remain powerful after Elizabeth’s death.
- Essex was particularly close to James. Essex’s execution was helpful for Cecil, whose position may have been threatened if Essex had survived into James’ reign.
- Mountjoy, on behalf of Essex, encouraged James to send an army to force Elizabeth to recognise him as her successor; James refused.
- James also refused to react violently to a letter from Essex, claiming that Cecil preferred a Spanish successor. Instead, James sent two nobles to the English Court to discover the truth and to keep in touch with Essex.
- By the time they arrived, Essex was dead. From then on, Cecil stayed in contact with James, ensuring a smooth succession, and remaining at the heart of government after 1603.
Possible Successors
- Jesuit Robert Parsons published a pamphlet in the Netherlands in 1595, advocating a Spanish successor.
- This brought the debate into the public domain. After the pamphlet was secretly circulated in England, leading Protestants wrote pamphlets arguing against it. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was concerned.
- At least 12 people had a claim to the throne- these included Isabella, sister of Philip III of Spain. Another contender Lady Arabella Stuart, a descendant of Henry VIII’s sister, Margaret (although she was not helped by Henry’s refusal to mention the Stuarts as possible heirs.)
- Although different successors were still thought possible, most people recognised that James was the most likely. He was Protestant, had the best hereditary claim, and had two sons as potential heirs.
- Helped by Cecil, James dealt with the issue carefully and peacefully. He did so even though Elizabeth continued to refuse to name him as her successor.
- Although Elizabeth may still have refused to name James on her deathbed, by 1603 her authority had disappeared and arrangements for his succession were in place.
Elizabeth's Legacy
- The “triumph” of the Church of England meant there was broad religious unity by 1603.
- Williams: “The Church of England had won control of the commanding heights of society….it became the accustomed religion of the majority.”
- This was the result of the decline of popular Catholicism and Separatism, the divisions between the remaining Catholics, and the integration of Puritans within the mainstream Church.
- By 1603, there was broad political unity.
- Almost all English people were loyal to the Crown- the only exception was a small group of militant Jesuits. The majority of the population were law abiding
- There had been no direct challenge to Elizabeth since the Northern Rebellion in 1569. England was also in a stronger position compared to France and Spain than at the start of the reign.
- Politicians were generally extremely loyal- the only exception was followers of Essex, but they had been marginalised since his execution
- However, there were complaints- the younger generation felt Elizabeth had reigned for too long and it was time for a king.
- In addition, factional rivalries, economic and social problems, fears about law and order, and the monopolies dispute had tarnished Elizabeth’s reputation after 1588.
Elizabeth's Death:
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Potential problems for James:
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